69411VBraitenbergSchattauerStuttgart, Germany2011-00-00Wir leben mitten in einem üppigen Theater millionenfach variierter pflanzlicher und tierischer Formen. Sie bedecken die Oberfläche der Erde und erwecken unsere Bewunderung und unser ästhetisches Empfinden. Die Gesetze dieser Vielfalt ihren Geist also haben wir allerdings noch kaum ergründet.
Valentin Braitenberg ist Hirnforscher und Kybernetiker. Er hat sich ein Leben lang bemüht, komplexe Verschaltungen im Gehirn als technische Lösungen verhaltensphysiologischer Aufgaben zu erklären. In diesem Buch geht seine Ambition noch einen Schritt weiter: Im Begriff der Information, der in der künstlichen Intelligenz eine zentrale Rolle spielt, sieht er das Äquivalent zum Geist in der Natur. Mit nüchternem, wissenschaftlich-kritischem Blick und doch immer wieder augenzwinkernd präsentiert er uns die Geister, die uns umgeben und zeigt auf ebenso unterhaltsame wie verblüffende Weise, dass sie ihren festen Platz in der Wissenschaft verdient haben. Ein uraltes philosophisches Problem wird so entzaubert.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published158Information: der Geist in der Natur150171542349127MValverdeVBraitenbergTrieste, Italy2007-09-003639th Annual General Meeting of the European Brain and Behaviour Society“Optical imaging” maps of the visual cortex after systematic
application of variously oriented visual stimuli provide an
opportunity to test different hypotheses on the distribution
of orientation sensitive neurons over the surface of the cortex.
Rectilinear “slabs” of uniform orientation, as postulated
in some earlier models, are not supported by the evidence.
What is compatible with the optical imaging maps is the
arrangement of neurons with different orientation around
centers, regularly spaced at distances of about 0.5mm in a
hexagonal array. According to the model proposed by [3],
the orientations to which the neurons are sensitive should
be arranged either radially, or, more likely, like the tangents [1] of circles around said centers, whereby in either case twice the same orientation occurs in opposite positions of the “hypercolumn” thus defined. The centers of the hypercolumns very likely coincide with the so-called cytochrome oxidase “blobs” which are spaced at the same distance. The fact that within these “blobs” orientation tuning of cortical neurons becomes undefined [4], makes the array of orientations around these centers less spectacular, and indeed other interpretations of the coloured maps produced by optical recording were put forward. So-called “pinwheels” stole the show, that is centers around which neurons with different orientation sensitivity crowd with the colours representing their orientation clashing without interposed indifferent regions.
In these pinwheels each of the different orientations occurs only once as you go full circle around their center.
They most likely correspond to the corners between the hypercolumns in their hexagonal array, and the different orientations within one “pinwheel” most likely belong to three different hypercolumns that meet there [2].
The distinction between the two entities, orientation hypercolumns and pinwheels may sound academic but becomes
crucial when one endeavours to underpin orientation
specificity of cortical neurons with schemes of neuronal interactions at the elementary level. The accompanying illustration should help the reader to partake in this discussion.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published-36Hypercolumns vs. pinwheels1501715421150171542348597MValverdeVBraitenbergTübingen, Germany2007-07-009310th Tübinger Wahrnehmungskonferenz (TWK 2007)“Optical imaging” of the visual cortex after application of variously oriented visual stimuli
provides an opportunity to test different models of the distribution of orientation sensitive neurons
over the surface of the cortex. Rectilinear “slabs” of uniform orientation are not supported
by the evidence. What is compatible with the optical imaging is the arrangement of neurons
with different orientation around centers, regularly spaced at distances of about 0.5 mm in a
hexagonal array. According to a model proposed in 1979 [1], the orientations to which the
neurons are sensitive should be arranged either radially, or, more likely, like the tangents [2]
of circles around said centers, whereby in either case twice the same orientation occurs in opposite
positions of the “hypercolumn” thus defined. For this reason each colour, indicating a
certain orientation on the optical recording maps, should form a blotch the shape of two sectors
meeting at the center of the hypercolumn. We chose the term “bow tie” for this configuration,
to match the facetiousness of the competing term “pinwheel”. The centers of the hypercolumns
very likely coincide with the so-called cytochrome oxidase “blobs” which are spaced
at the same distance. The fact that within these “blobs” orientation tuning of cortical neurons
becomes rather undefined [3], makes the array of orientations around these centers less spectacular,
and indeed other interpretations of the coloured maps were put forward. “Pinwheels”
stole the show, i.e. centers around which neurons with different orientation sensitivity crowd
with the colours representing their orientation clashing without interposed indifferent regions.
In these pinwheels each of the different orientations occurs only once as you go full circle
around their center. They most likely correspond to the corners between the hypercolumns in
their hexagonal array, and the different orientations within one “pinwheel” most likely belong
to three different hypercolumns that meet there [4].
The distinction between the two entities, orientation hypercolumns and pinwheels may
sound academic but becomes crucial when one endeavours to underpin orientation specificity
of cortical neurons with schemes of neuronal interactions at the elementary level. This is fairly
easy in the case of the hypercolumns under the assumption that in their centers are housed
special inhibitory neurons [2], while a similar elementary scheme was never found as an explanation
of the pinwheels.
On the coloured maps obtained with “optical recording” it is possible to discern both “pinwheels”
and “bow ties” as an aid to the localization of the two types of centers.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published-93Pinwheels vs. Bow Ties1501715421150171542338182VBraitenbergSpringer-ItaliaMilano, Italy2006-01-003538Imagination and Rigor: Essays on Eduardo R. Caianiello‘s Scientific Heritagenonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published3La borsa o la vita: an excercise in applied logics ; Appendix to: Remarks on the Semantics of "Information"150171542338172VBraitenbergSpringer-Verlag ItaliaMilano, Italy2006-01-003138Imagination and Rigor: Essays on Eduardo R. Caianiellos Scientific Heritagenonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published7Remarks on the Semantics of "Information"150171542324911VBraitenbergLitMünster, Germany2004-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published250Das Bild der Welt im Kopf: Eine Naturgeschichte des Geistes1501715423Braitenberg20041VBraitenbergLitMünster, Germany2004-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published156Vehikel: Experimente mit kybernetischen Wesen150171542324857ASchüzVBraitenbergTübingen, Germany2004-02-001127th Tübingen Perception Conference (TWK 2004)The human cortical white matter has a volume nearly as large as the grey matter. Most of
it is composed of bers connecting the cortex to itself. These bres can be divided into the
following systems: 1) short bres which follow the gyri and sulci of the grey matter (the U-
bre-system), 2) longer bres which make short-cuts between more distant gyri, 3) long bres
which run in fascicles in the depth of the white matter and connect the different cortical lobes
with each other, and 4) bres of the Corpus callosum. In this study we make an estimate of the
quantitative composition of some of these sytems. This gives insights into the organization of
cortico-cortical connectivity in the human brain which is otherwise difcult to approach.
In a rst approach, we dissected the long-range fascicles in the depth of the white matter.
Measuring their cross sectional areas and multiplying these by the assumed density of bres
one can estimate the number of bres in these fascicles. It turned out to be of the orders of
and P.QSR
P.Q<T
in the individual fascicles and to add up to the order of
P.Q7U
for the fascicles of one
hemisphere. Thus, the number of bres connecting the lobes of one hemisphere to each other
is similar to the number of bres in the Corpus callosum [1]. Both of these long bre systems
comprise only a few percent of the total number of cortico-cortical bres [2].
In a second approach, we made estimates on the number of short cortico-cortical bres
(up to a few centimeters) in the white matter (based on volume measurements of the U-ber
system) and on the number of horizontal axon collaterals which connect the cortex in itself up
to a few millimeters within the grey matter. It turns out that there is an inverse relation between
number and range of bres connecting the cortex in itself. The bres in the U-bre system
outnumber the cortico-cortical bres in the rest of the white matter by a factor of 10, and are
themselves about 10 times less than the horizontal collaterals in the grey matter.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published-112Cortico-Cortical Connectivity in the Human Brain: A Study on the Cortical White Matter15017154211501715423CrespiReghizziB20032SCrespi ReghizziVBraitenbergTaylor & FrancisLondon, UK2003-00-001732Grammars and automata for string processing: from mathematics and computer science to biology, and backChomsky’s theory of syntax came after criticism of probabilistic associative models of word order in sentences. Immediate constituent structures are plausible but their description by generative grammars has met with difficulties. The type 2 (context-free) grammars account for constituent structure, but already trespass the mathematical capacity required by language, because they generate unnatural mathematical sets: a consequence of being based on recursive function theory. Abstract associative models investigated by formal language theoreticians (Schutzenberger, McNaughton, Papert, Brzozowsky, Simon) are known as locally testable models. A combination of locally testable and constituent structure models is proposed under the name of Associative Language Description, arguing that it equals type 2 grammars in explanatory adequacy, yet is compatible with brain models. Two versions of ALD are exemplified and discussed: one based on modulation, the other on pattern rules. A sketch of brain organization in terms of cell assemblies and synfire chains concludes.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/fileadmin/user_upload/files/publications/Crespi_Braitenberg03.pdfpublished15Towards a brain compatible theory of syntax based on local testability1501715423Braitenberg20037VBraitenbergGöttingen, Germany2003-06-0018829th Göttingen Neurobiology ConferenceIn no other part of the nervous system is the internal connectivity as thoroughly known
as in the cerebellar cortex. Moreover, although other cortices are not known in comparable
detail, one can confidently assert that the pattern in the cerebellum is unique.
This would seem to make it possible to go directly from the elementary mesh of the
cerebellar network to a definition of its global operation, and hence to an explanation of
the "functions" of the normal cerebellum and of the "symptoms"of its derailment, as
they appear to the clinical neurologist. Nobody has succeded in building this bridge, in
spite of some proposals which were seductive in their generality, but too general to serve
as an explanation of the uniqueness of the cerebellum.
The stagnation of our theorizing is not caused by lack of experimental findings, which
have been forthcoming at an impressive rate in recent years. Rather, it seems that most
of the experiments were not so much aimed at an elucidation of the special kind of
computation typical for the cerebellum, as at questions which apply to the nervous system
everywhere, such as membrane physiology and plasticity on one hand, the mapping
of input and output connections on the other.
In this situation it seems legitimate to take a fresh start by reproposing once more the
level of analysis where the cerebellum is most characteristically itself, the level intermediate
between cytology and fiber bundle tracing, that of the geometry of the intracortical
fiber felt.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published-188Spatio-temporal Activity Patterns as a Key to Cerebellar Function150171542320663VBraitenberg2002-12-00978175183Annals of the New York Academy of SciencesThe very special intrinsic connectivity of the cerebellar cortex plays but a minor role in present-day theories of cerebellar function, and it is hardly used as a source of inspiration for experiments. It is argued here that a direct translation of structure into physiological relations inescapably leads to some propositions about cerebellar function that could be tested experimentally.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published8In Defense of the Cerebellum150171542316162ASchüzVBraitenbergTaylor & FrancisLondon, UK2002-05-00377385Cortical areas: unity and diversitynonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published8The Human Cortical White Matter: Quantitative Aspects of Cortico-Cortical Long-Range Connectivity15017154211501715423393DHeckFSultanVBraitenberg2001-06-0038-40641646NeurocomputingHere we present evidence that the cerebellar cortex in vivo specifically responds to sequential input to the granular layer, the main input site of the
cerebellar cortex. Ordered sequences of electrical stimuli were delivered through an array of stimulating electrodes in such a way, that an apparent movement
of the stimulus was produced. The parallel fiber population responses to sequential stimuli ‘moving‘ at 7 different velocities (0.1-0.7m/s) and in two different
directions (towards and away from the recording site) were measured extracellularly in the molecular layer. Population responses were maximal when the
stimulus moved towards the recording site at a velocity close to the conduction velocity of parallel fibers. Responses were significantly reduced when the
stimulus velocity was higher or lower. We conclude that the characteristic geometrical arrangement of parallel fibers enables the cerebellum to specifically
detect precise spatio- temporal activity patterns in the messy fiber system. These findings confirm earlier observations made in vitro and shed new light on the
functional interpretation of cerebellar anatomy. Together with recent findings suggesting that precise spatio-temporal activity patterns play a key role in
information processing in the neocortex, the results reported here are particularly important concerning the information exchange between the strongly
interconnected cerebellum and neocortex. (C) 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published5Sequential stimulation of rat cerebellar granular layer in vivo: Further evidence of a "tidal-wave" timing mechanism in the cerebellum1501715423323VBraitenberg2001-01-001107177Journal of Computational NeuroscienceCertain remarkable invariances have long been known in comparative neuroanatomy, such as the proportionality between neuronal density and the inverse of the cubic root of brain volume or that between the square root of brain weight and the cubic root of body weight. Very likely these quantitative relations reflect some general principles of the architecture of neuronal networks. Under the assumption that most of brain volume is due to fibers, we propose four abstract models: I, constant fiber length per neuron; II, fiber length proportionate to brain diameter; III, complete set of connections between all neurons; IV, complete set of connections between compartments each containing the square root of the total number of neurons. Model I conforms well to the cerebellar cortex. Model II yields the observed comparative invariances between number of neurons and brain size. Model III is totally unrealistic, while Model IV is compatible with the volume of the hemispheric white substance in different mammalian species.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published6Brain size and number of neurons: An exercise in synthetic neuroanatomy.150171542320623VBraitenberg2001-00-002-32263278Cognitive Processingnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published15Thoughts on the neuronal hardware of language150171542311962ASchüzVBraitenbergElsevierAmsterdam, Netherlands2001-00-0016341660International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciencesnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published26Cerebral cortex: Organization and Function15017154231501715423753VBraitenberg2000-00-0091820Laborjournalnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published2Informationsbiologie (Wenn ich heute Postdoc wäre ...)150171542314342VBraitenbergHarwood AcademicAmsterdam, Netherlands2000-00-00391396Time and the brainnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published5Postlude: The neuroanatomy of time15017154234581SSabinZGahseVBraitenbergWallstein-VerlagGöttingen, Germany1999-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published40Wörter, Wörter, Wörter!15017154233461VBraitenbergASchüzSpringerBerlin, Germany1998-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published249Cortex: Statistics and Geometry of Neuronal Connectivity150171542368903VBraitenberg1998-10-0044309310Artificial Lifenonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published1Selection, the Impersonal Engineer15017154234943VBraitenbergDHeckFSultan1997-06-00220267271Behavioral and Brain SciencesAlthough our idea of sequential input being a key to cerebellar function was taken seriously by most commentators, there were also objections,
based in part on experimental evidence that seems to contradict our intuitions and in part on commentators‘ preferences for different schemes. Several were
suspicious of experiments (performed on slices of cerebellar tissue) that may have severed some of the synaptic connections, particularly the inhibitory ones. It is
our feeling that a modification of our theory that could satisfy most critics would not have to be very radical.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published4Waiting for the ultimate theory of the cerebellum15017154233533VBraitenberg1997-04-00328187213Cybernetics and Systemsnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published26Searching for language mechanisms in the brain150171542368691AAertsenVBraitenbergElsevierAmsterdam, Netherlands1996-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published300Brain Theory: Biological Basis and Computational Principles15017154236101VBraitenbergAlpha & BetaMerano, Italy1996-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published165Il gusto della lingua: Meccanismi cerebrali e strutture grammaticali15017154235343DPlenzAAertsen1996-02-00470861891NeuroscienceAn in vitro system was established to analyse corticostriatal processing. Cortical and striatal slices taken at postnatal days 0–2 were co-cultured for three to six weeks. The anatomy of the organotypic co-cultures was determined using immunohistochemistry. In the cortex parvalbumin-positive and calbindin-positive cells, which resembled those seen in vivo, had laminar distributions. In the striatum, strongly stained parvalbumin-positive cells resembling striatal GABAergic interneurons and cholinergic interneurons were scattered throughout the tissue. The soma area of these iterneuron classes was larger than the average striatal soma area, thus enabling visual selections of cells by class before recording. Cortical neurons with projections to the striatum showed similar morphological features to corticostriatal projection neurons in vivo. No projections from the striatum to the cortex were found. Intracellular recordings were obtained from 94 neurons. These were first classified on the basis of electrophysiological characteristics and the morphologies of cells in each class were reconstructed. Two types of striatal secondary neurons with unique electrophysiological dynamics were identified: GABAergic interneurons (n = 17) and large aspiny, probably cholinergic, interneurons (n = 15). The electrophysiological and morphological characteristics of cortical pyramidal cells (n = 27), cortical interneurons (n = 1), as well as striatal principal neurons (n = 34), were identical to those reported for similar ages in vivo.
Organotypic cortex-striatum co-cultures are therefore suitable as an in vitro system in which to analyse corticostriatal processing. The network dynamics, which developed spontaneously in that system, are examined in the companion paper.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published30Neural dynamics in cortex-striatum co-cultures: 1. Anatomy and electrophysiology of neuronal cell types15017154235353DPlenzAAertsen1996-02-00470893924NeuroscienceNeural dynamics in organotypic cortex-striatum co-cultures grown for three to six weeks under conditions of dopamine deficiency are described. Single neuron activities were recorded intra- and extracellularly, and spatiotemporal spreading of population activity was mapped using voltage-sensitive dyes. The temporal properties of spike firing were characterized by interspike interval histograms, autocorrelation and crosscorrelation.
Cortical pyramidal neurons (n = 40) showed irregular firing with a weak tendency to burst or to oscillate. Crosscorrelations revealed strong near-coincident firing and synaptic interactions. Disinhibition was a notable feature in a strongly firing cortical interneuron. Cortical activity spread in the co-culture, thus inducing an overall, homogeneous depolarization in the striatal part. Striatal cells were divided into principal cells and type I and II secondary cells. Principal cells (n = 40) were similar to those reported previously in vivo. Spiking activity ranged from irregular spiking at very low rates to episodic bursting, with an average burst duration of 1 s. Interspike intervals were single-peaked. Intracellular recordings revealed characteristic, long-lasting subthreshold depolarizations (“enabled state”) that were shortened by local muscarinic receptor blockade. During prolonged time periods in the “enabled state”, locally applied bicuculline induced strong firing in most principal neurons. Striatal secondary type I neurons (n = 25) showed high spiking rates, single- and double-peaked interval histograms and low-threshold, short-lasting stereotyped bursting activity and occasional rhythmic bursting. The firing of these neurons was increased by bicuculline. Crosscorrelations showed synchronization of these cells with principal cell activity. Secondary type II neurons (n = 15) revealed tonic, irregular firing patterns similar to cortical neurons, except with occasional firing in doublet spikes.
We conclude that under conditions of dopamine deficiency in corticostriatal co-cultures (i) the cortex induces the “enabled” state and typical bursting mode in striatal principal neurons; (ii) principal neurons are strongly inhibited during the “enabled” state; (iii) muscarinic activity, presumably from tonically active striatal cholinergic interneurons, stabilizes the “enabled” state; (iv) striatal GABAergic interneurons receive synaptic inhibition and take part in synchronized activity among striatal principal cells. Our results favor the view of the striatum as a lateral inhibition network.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published31Neural dynamics in cortex-striatum co-cultures: 2. Spatiotemporal characteristics of neuronal activity15017154236012VBraitenbergRowohltReinbek bei Hamburg, Germany1996-00-00119129Die Natur ist unser Modell von ihr: Forschung und Philosophie ; das Bozner Treffen 1995nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published10Entspringt die Logik dem Gehirn oder das Gehirn der Logik?15017154236022VBraitenbergASchüzKlett-CottaStuttgart, Germany1996-00-00211221Wörterbuch der Kognitionswissenschaftnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published10Gehirn (brain)15017154236092JMZankerVBraitenbergElsevierAmsterdam, Netherlands1996-00-001936Brain theory: biological basis and computational principlesnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published17Psychophysical Mapping of Orientation Sensitivity in the Human Cortex150171542368821VBraitenbergIHospRowohltReinbek bei Hamburg, Germany1995-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published175Simulation: Computer zwischen Experiment und Theorie150171542317743ASchüzGDemianenko1995-01-00136113122Journal für HirnforschungSynapses and dendritic spines were investigated in the parietal cortex of the hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) and the monkey (Macaca mulatta). There was no significant difference in the density of synapses between the two species (14 synapses/100 microns2 in the hedgehog, 15/100 microns2 in the monkey), neither in the size of the synaptic junctions, in the proportion of Type I and Type II synapses (8-10% were of Type II in the hedgehog, 10-14% in the monkey) nor in the proportion of perforated synapses (8% in the hedgehog, 5% in the monkey). The only striking difference at the electron microscopic level concerned the frequency of synapses in which the postsynaptic profile was deeply indented into the presynaptic terminal. Such synapses were 10 times more frequent in the monkey. Dendritic spines were investigated in Golgi-preparations. The density of spines along dendrites was similar in both species. The results are discussed with regard to connectivity in the cortex of small and large brains.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published9Constancy and variability in cortical structure. A study on synapses and dendritic spines in hedgehog and monkey150171542369217VBraitenbergTrieste, Italy1995-00-0011Second International Symposium on Conceptual Tools for Understanding Naturenonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published0The cerebellar network150171542368661VBraitenbergIHospRowohltReinbek bei Hamburg, Germany1994-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published256Evolution: Entwicklung und Organisation in der Natur ; das Bozner Treffen 1993150171542317773ASchüz1994-09-00917365365Trends in Neurosciencesnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published0Patchiness as a means to get a message across150171542317783BHellwigASchüzAAertsen1994-05-00171112Biological CyberneticsIn this study we investigated the arrangement of synapses on local axon collaterals of Golgi-stained pyramidal neurons in the mouse cerebral cortex. As synaptic markers we considered axonal swellings visible at high magnification under the light microscope. Such axonal swellings coincide with synaptic boutons, as has been demonstrated in a number of combined light and electron microscopic studies. These studies also indicated that, in most cases, one bouton corresponds precisely to one synapse. Golgi-impregnated axonal trees of 20 neocortical pyramidal neurons were drawn with a camera lucida. Axonal swellings were marked on the drawings. Most swellings were lsquoen passantrsquo; occasionally, they were situated at the tip of short, spine-like processes. On axon collaterals, the average interval between swellings was 4.5 mgrm. On the axonal main stem, the swellings were always less densely packed than on the collaterals. Statistical analysis of the spatial distribution of the swellings did not reveal any special patterns. Instead, the arrangement of swellings on individual collaterals follows a Poisson distribution. Moreover, the same holds to a large extent for the entire collection of pyramidal cell collaterals. This suggests that a single Poisson process, characterized by only one rate parameter (number of synapses per unit length), describes most of the spatial distribution of synapses along pyramidal cell collaterals. These findings do not speak in favour of a pronounced target specificity of pyramidal neurons at the synaptic level. Instead, our results support a probabilistic model of cortical connectivity.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published11Synapses on axon collaterals of pyramidal cells are spaced at random intervals: A Golgi study in the mouse cerebral cortex150171542317767AAertsenMErbGPalmASchüzTecklenburg, Germany1994-00-005983NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Oscillatory Event Related Brain Dynamics 1993nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published24Coherent assembly dynamics in the cerebral cortex: multi-unit recordings, network simulations and anatomical considerations150171542317797ASchüzVBraitenbergGöttingen, Germany1994-00-00161169Symposium in the Memory of Otto D. Creutzfeldt 1993nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published8Constraints to a random plan of cortical connectivity150171542369182VBraitenbergHPreisslCambridge University PressCambridge, Great Britain1994-00-00113115Movement controlnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published2Why is the output of the cerebellum inhibitory?150171542368652VBraitenbergRowohltReinbek bei Hamburg, Germany1994-00-00153171Evolution: Entwicklung und Organisation in der Natur ; das Bozner Treffen 1993nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published18Wie kommen Ideen ins Gehirn?150171542314531VBraitenbergRowohltReinbek bei Hamburg, Germany1993-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published156Vehikel: Experimente mit kybernetischen Wesen150171542368613VBraitenberg1993-10-0010391315Sistemi e Impresanonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published2L‘imitazione degli automi naturali150171542368593FSultanVBraitenberg1993-00-001347992Journal für Hirnforschungnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published13Shapes and sizes of different mammalian cerebella: A study in quantitative comparative neuroanatomy150171542317802VBraitenbergASchüzSpringerBerlin, Germany1993-00-00485485Neuro- und Sinnesphysiologierevised editions in 1995, 1998, 2001 and 2005nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published0Allgemeine Neuroanatomie150171542368582VBraitenbergElsevierAmsterdam, Netherlands1993-00-00307307Brain Theory: Spatio-Temporal Aspects of Brain Functionnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published0Intricacies of Movement Control: an essay150171542369191AAertsenVBraitenbergSpringerBerlin, Germany1992-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published477Information Processing in the Cortex: Experiments and Theory150171542317813MCaeserASchüz1992-07-004 - 533429443Journal für HirnforschungUsing light and electron microscopic methods, we investigated the development and morphology of neurons in neocortical slice cultures. Slices taken from the visual cortex of 6-day-old rats and cultivated for 14 or 20 days were compared with in situ material of corresponding age (P 20 and P 26). Maturation and differentiation of pyramidal and non-pyramidal cells kept in vitro were found to have progressed considerably. In the light microscope the neurons exhibited a morphological appearance strikingly similar to that of the neurons of the neocortex in situ at the same age. The fine structure of the tissue in vitro also had a mature appearance, corresponding in most respects to the material in situ. Synapses and dendritic spines were well-developed. Sometimes a spine apparatus was contained in the sections and occasionally a myelinated fiber could be seen. GABA-immunoreactive cells making symmetric synaptic contacts were also present. Despite these similarities, some quantitative differences could be observed. In slice cultures, only 52% of the synapses were located on spines (78% in situ). In vitro, a larger proportion of synapses (30%) showed a postsynaptically concave curvature than was the case in situ (12%). The areal density of synapses in vitro reached only about 70% of that in situ. This was probably a side-effect of the larger size of dendritic and axonal profiles on electron micrographs of in vitro-material. The most striking difference was that large synapses and synapses containing a large amount of synaptic vesicles were considerably more frequent in vitro than in situ.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published14Maturation of neurons in neocortical slice cultures. A light and electron microscopic study on in situ and in vitro material150171542368913VBraitenbergFPulvermüller1992-03-00379103117Naturwissenschaftennonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published14Entwurf einer neurologischen Theorie der Sprache150171542369173VBraitenbergHPreissl1992-00-0015715717Behavioral and Brain Sciencesnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published2Why is the output of the cerebellum inhibitory?150171542317837VBraitenbergASchüzCortona, Italy1992-00-0089102NATO Advanced Study Institute on Language Origin: a Multidisciplinary Approach 1988nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published13Basic features of cortical connectivity and some considerations on language150171542339062VBraitenbergSpringerBerlin, Germany1992-06-00447450Information Processing in the Cortex: Experiments and Theorynonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de//fileadmin/user_upload/files/publications/How%20ideas%20survive_3906[0].pdfpublished3How Ideas Survive Evidence to the Contrary: a Comment of Data Display and Modelling150171542369202VBraitenbergSpringerBerlin, Germany1992-00-00473477Information Processing in the Cortex: Experiments and Theorynonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published4Manifesto of brain science150171542317822ASchüzSpringerBerlin, Germany1992-00-00321Information Processing in the Cortex: Experiments and Theorynonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published18Randomness and constraints in the cortical neuropil150171542317997GPDemianenkoASchüzMünchen, Germany1992-09-0029015th Annual Meeting of the European Neuroscience Association, 24th Annual Meeting of the European Brain and Behaviour Societynonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published-290Constant features of the cortical neuropil: A comparative study on synapses and dendritic spines in hedgehog and monkey150171542368811VBraitenbergASchüzSpringerBerlin, Germany1991-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published249Anatomy of the cortex: statistics and geometry150171542368771VBraitenbergPresses Polytechniques RomandesLausanne, Switzerland1991-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published171Véhicules: expériences en psychologie synthétique150171542369227VBraitenbergViareggio, Italy1991-00-0011Nuovi Problemi della Logica e della Filosofia della Scienzanonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published0Logics at different levels in the brain150171542369232VBraitenbergSpringerNew York, NY, USA1991-00-00107120Models of Neural Networksnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published13Information from structure: a sketch of neuroanatomy150171542318007ASchüzMCaeserOtago, New Zealand1991-01-00Combined Meeting of the Australian Neuroscience Society, Australian Physiological and Pharmacological Society, Anatomical Society of Australia and New Zealandnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published0Maturation of neurons in cortical slice cultures: Quantitative Aspects150171542369263VBraitenberg1990-01-0011111NetworkIt is a fashionable philosophical tenet to consider Darwinian evolution as a process which incorporates knowledge into brains. We ask ourselves: can this knowledge about the world be recognised in the structure of brains? The present article gives a partial answer to this. Mechanisms of information handling and storage may well be related to the impressive major cortices of the vertebrate brain, the cerebral and the cerebellar cortices. The structure of the first fits the idea of an associative memory while the second strongly suggests computation of movement in terms of velocities. In some insect brains the mechanisms of visual perception can be related to detailed neuroanatomical structure, and one such network incorporates knowledge about the optics of a camera-type eye. Another one provides the wiring that would be expected in a set of velocity detectors using the principle of cross-correlation of neighbouring inputs.
Knowledge acquired during a lifetime is also laid down in brains but the search for the engram in the structure of brains has not yet been very successful.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published10Reading the structure of brains150171542369243VBraitenberg1990-00-002213227Sistemi Intelligentinonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published14La corteccia cerebrale come sede di memoria associativa150171542318017MSchweizerASchüzGöttingen, Germany1990-06-003718th Göttingen Neurobiology Conferencenonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published-37What comes first: the dendritic spine or its synapse? An electron microscopical investigation150171542369252VBraitenbergSuhrkampFrankfurt am Main, Germany1990-00-00331347Vor der Jahrtausendwende: Bericht zur Lage der Zukunftnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published16Durch ein schmales Fenster betrachtet150171542317843ASchüzGPalm1989-08-004286442455Journal of Comparative NeurologyQuantitative anatomical investigations provide the basis for functional models. In this study the density of neurons and synapses was measured in three different areas (8, 6, and 17) of the neocortex of the mouse. Both kinds of measurements were made on the same material, embedded in Epon/Araldit. In order to determine the synaptic density per mm3, the proportion of synaptic neuropil was also measured; it was found to be 84%. The cortical volume occupied by cell bodies of neurons and glia cells amounted to 12%, that by blood vessels to 4%.
The total average was 9.2 × 104 neurons/mm3 and 7.2 × 108 synapses/mm3. About 11% of the synapses were of type II. The density of neurons increased with decreasing cortical thickness; thus the number of neurons under a given surface area was about constant. The synaptic density, on the other hand, was almost constant in the three areas, the number of synapses under a given cortical surface area tended, therefore, to increase with cortical thickness. The average number of synapses per neuron was 8,200, with a tendency to increase with increasing cortical thickness.
Shrinkage of the tissue was also measured for various staining techniques. No shrinkage occurred during perfusion with 3.7% formaldehyde or with a solution of buffered paraformaldehyde and glutaraldehyde and during fixation in situ. Electron microscopical material showed almost no shrinkage, whereas Nissl-preparations on paraffin-embedded material had only 43% of their original volume. After Nissl stain on frozen sections the volume had shrunken to 68% and after Golgi impregnation and embedding in celloidin to 70%. The total volume of the neocortex was 112 mm3 (both hemispheres together). The total number of neurons was thus 1.0 × 107 and the total number of synapses 8.1 × 1010.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published13Density of neurons and synapses in the cerebral cortex of the mouse150171542317853VBraitenbergASchüz1989-05-00519897486Spektrum der Wissenschaftnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published12Cortex: hohe Ordnung oder grösstmögliches Durcheinander?150171542369283VBraitenberg1989-00-00953945Kursbuchnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published6Der Wurm im Ich150171542369272VBraitenbergFeltrinelliMilano, Italy1989-00-00195204Mente umana, mente artificialeOriginal: Reading the structures of brainsnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published9Leggere la struttura del cervello150171542369302VBraitenbergMIT PressCambridge, MA, USA1989-00-00137145Neural connections, mental computationnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published8Some Arguments for a Theory of Cell Assemblies in the Cerebral Cortex150171542318027GPalmASchüzAntwerpen, Belgium1989-08-0051Third International Congress of Vertebrate Morphologynonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published-51Synaptic and neuronal density in the cortex of the mouse150171542318047BHellwigASchüzGöttingen, Germany1989-06-0017517th Göttingen Neurobiology Conference: Dynamics and Plasticity in Neuronal Systemsnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published-175Density and distribution of presynaptic boutons on Golgi-stained axons in the cortex of the mouse.150171542318037MCaeserASchüzGöttingen, Germany1989-06-0022617th Göttingen Neurobiology Conference: Dynamics and Plasticity in Neuronal Systemsnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published-226Maturation of neurons in cortical slice cultures150171542369323VBraitenberg1988-00-0091161171Kursbuchnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published10Monistische Meditationen150171542317867ASchüzSeattle, WA, USA1988-00-00265272Symposium on the "Cellular mechanisms of conditioning and behavioral plasticity"nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published7Some conclusions, relevant to plasticity, derived from normal anatomy150171542369297VBraitenbergLos Alamos, NM, USA1988-00-00555565Proceedings of an Interdisciplinary Workshop on the Synthesis and Simulation of Living Systemsnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/fileadmin/user_upload/files/publications/Some_types_of_movements.pdfpublished10Some Types of Movements150171542318057ASchüzGPalmZürich, Switzerland1988-09-0024311th Annual Meeting of the European Neuroscience Associationnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published-243Synaptic and neuronal density in different areas of the mouse cortex1501715423Braitenberg19887VBraitenbergZürich, Switzerland1988-09-0014711th Annual Meeting of the European Neuroscience Associationnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published-147The role of passive mechanical factors in voluntary movement150171542324941VBraitenbergHaffmansZürich, Switzerland1987-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published185Gescheit sein: und andere unwissenschaftliche Essays150171542368831VBraitenbergTetsugaku ShoboTokyo, Japan1987-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published232Künstliche Wesen150171542318131AAertsenGPalmMPoppASchüzMax-Planck-Institut für Biologische KybernetikTübingen, Germany1987-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published155Wahrnehmungen des Gehirns: Beiträge zu einem Symposium zum 60. Geburtstag von Valentin Braitenberg150171542317883ASchüzMDortenmann1987-11-00628633639Journal für HirnforschungA modification of the phosphotungstic acid method was used to investigate long segments of non-spiny dendrites in the electron microscope. The number of synapses on these dendrites was counted. The density was 1.9 synapses per micron of dendritic length. Taking into account the synapses not contained in the sections, (which are thinner than the dendrites) one gets a real density of 3.3 synapses per micron. This is more than the average density of synapses along spiny dendrites. It demonstrates that spines are not necessary for large numbers of synaptic contacts.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published6Synaptic density on non-spiny dendrites in the cerebral cortex of the house mouse. A phosphotungstic acid study150171542317877ASchüzTübingen, Germany1987-00-001738Symposion zum 60. Geburtstag von Valentin Braitenberg 1986nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published21Die Feinstruktur der Großhirnrinde oder: wie paßt das Gehirn in den Kopf?150171542369337VBraitenbergAmalfi, Italy1987-00-007578Physics of cognitive processes: Amalfi 1986nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published3Some problems in brain science awaiting theoretical treatment150171542369342VBraitenbergBirkhäuserBoston, MA, USA1987-00-00176178Encyclopedia of neurosciencenonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published2Structural Symmetries of Brains150171542369312VBraitenbergPlenum PressNew York, NY, USA1987-00-00193207Cerebellum and neuronal plasticitynonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/fileadmin/user_upload/files/publications/The_Cerebellum_and_the_Physics_of_Movement.pdfpublished14The Cerebellum and the Physics of Movement: Some Speculations150171542368761VBraitenbergViewegBraunschweig, Germany1986-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published147Künstliche Wesen: Verhalten kybernetischer Vehikel150171542317893ASchüz1986-02-003244277285Journal of Comparative NeurologyDendritic spines in the cerebral cortex of newborn and adult guinea pigs were compared quantitatively. An increase in the average diameter of the head by 21% and in the diameter of the stalk by 29% was found. No difference could be measured in the average length of the spines of both age groups.
When plotting the individual measurements against each other, a slight correlation could be found only between the size of the spine head and the thickness of the stalk.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published8Comparison between the dimensions of dendritic spines in the cerebral cortex of newborn and adult Guinea pigs150171542317903GKroneHAMallotGPalmASchüz1986-01-001245226421444Proceedings of the Royal Society of London BWe assume that the mammalian neocortex is built up out of some six layers which differ in their morphology and their external connections. Intrinsic connectivity is largely excitatory, leading to a considerable amount of positive feedback. The majority of cortical neurons can be divided into two main classes: the pyramidal cells, which are said to be excitatory, and local cells (most notably the non-spiny stellate cells), which are said to be inhibitory. The form of the dendritic and axonal arborizations of both groups is discussed in detail. This results in a simplified model of the cortex as a stack of six layers with mutual connections determined by the principles of fibre anatomy. This stack can be treated as a multi-input-multi-output system by means of the linear systems theory of homogeneous layers. The detailed equations for the simulation are derived in the Appendix. The results of the simulations show that the temporal and spatial behaviour of an excitation distribution cannot be treated separately. Further, they indicate specific processing in the different layers and some independence from details of wiring. Finally, the simulation results are applied to the theory of visual receptive fields. This yields some insight into the mechanisms possibly underlying hypercomplexity, putative nonlinearities, lateral inhibition, oscillating cell responses, and velocity-dependent tuning curves.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published23Spatiotemporal receptive fields: A dynamical model derived from cortical architectonics150171542369443VBraitenberg1986-00-00198638633866Das Fenster: Tiroler Kulturzeitschriftnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published3Sieben Schnitte durch die Wissenschaft150171542369357VBraitenbergSan Gimignano, Italy1986-00-0011Atti del Congresso Nuovi Problemi della Logica e della Filosofia della Scienzanonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published0Describing the brain in logical terms or the logical terms in the brain150171542369477VBraitenbergTrieste, Italy1986-00-0081961st Trieste Meeting on Brain Theorynonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published15Two views of the cerebral cortex150171542369462VBraitenbergOldenbourgMünchen, Germany1986-00-00205216Der Informationsbegriff in Technik und Wissenschaft: wissenschaftliches Symposium der IBM Deutschland GmbH, 3. - 5. Dezember 1984 in Bad Neuenahrnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published11Was das Gehirn mit Information zu tun hat150171542317913FKochASchüzJKariks1985-07-00367259267American Journal of Physical AnthropologyIn 1966, septal nuclei of unusual size in brains of kuru-diseased Fore people from the Eastern Highlands of New Guinea were reported (Beck and Gajdusek, 1966). Microscopic investigation which did not reveal any pathological changes in these nuclei led to the question of whether their large size could be a characteristic feature of the Fore (and perhaps also of other ethnic groups of New Guinea), rather than a consequence of the disease. We had at our disposal brains from patients of coastal areas of New Guinea who did not suffer from kuru. The septal areas of eight cases were investigated by serial sections and compared to those of nine European brains. No difference in size comparable to that reported in the earlier study could be detected. We conclude that a possible pecularity in the size of the septal nuclei of Fore people cannot be generalized to the entire population of New Guinea.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published8Comparison of the septal areas in New Guinean and European brains150171542317923ASchüzAMünster1985-05-001153339NeuroscienceThe aim of this study was to investigate the density and distribution of synapses on the axonaltree of apyramidalcell in the mousecortex. The method used was a new variation of Golgi-electron microscopy involving the modification of Colonnier, the photochemical method of Blackstad and the use of phosphotungstic acid.
A segment of axon collateral of 87 μm carried 17 synapses, the proximal 27 μm being free of synapses. The main axon was postsynaptic down to a length of 30μm. On the following 163 μm there were six presynaptic elements. On the proximal parts of four other collaterals, five synapses were found; a few synapses might, however, have been missed on these ramifications. Most of the synapses were located on thickenings already visible in the light microscope. The synaptic size varied by a factor of 2.7.
The results are compared to estimates derived from former statistical investigations with other light and electron microscopical methods.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published6Synaptic density on the axonal tree of a pyramidal cell in the cortex of the mouse150171542369583VBraitenberg1985-00-008019Kursbuchnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published8Gescheit sein!150171542339362VBraitenbergPlenum PressNew York, NY, USA1985-06-00379414Cerebral Cortex: Visual Cortexnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de//fileadmin/user_upload/files/publications/Charting%20the%20Visual%20Cortex_Braitenberg_3936[0].pdfpublished35Charting the visual cortex150171542369532VBraitenbergWileyChichester1985-00-00479484Models of the visual cortexnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published5An isotropic network which implicitly defines orientation columns: discussion of a hypothetis150171542369562VBraitenbergNaukaLeningrad, Soviet Union1985-00-003442Associativnye sistemy mozgaAssociative systems in the cerebral cortex of the mousenonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published8Associativnaja sistema v kore golovnogo mozga mysi150171542369552VBraitenbergRostovskij Gosudarstvennyj UniversitetRostov-na-Donu, Soviet Union1985-00-00115118Problemy nejrofiziologii i nejrokibernetikiQuantitative aspects of cortical anatomy in the light of the theory of cell assembliesnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published3Kolicestvennye aspekty anatomii kory golovnogo mozga v svete teorii nejronnych ansamblej150171542318067ASchüzNijmegen, Netherlands1985-00-0026Meeting on Activity Patterns of Neural Populationsnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published-26Quantitative aspects of cortical anatomy150171542368751VBraitenbergGarzantiMilano, Italy1984-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published127I veicoli pensanti: saggio di psicologia sintetica150171542368741VBraitenbergMIT PressCambridge, MA, USA1984-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published152Vehicles: experiments in synthetic psychology150171542369603VBraitenberg1984-00-00783545Kursbuchnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published10Tentakeln des Geistes150171542317982ASchüzFMHeinSpringerBerlin, Germany1984-00-00318321Cerebellar functionsnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published3Comparison between the developmental calendars of the cerebral and cerebellar cortices in a precocial and an altricial rodent150171542369622VBraitenbergEnkeStuttgart, Germany1984-00-00123133Pathophysiologie des Sehens: Grundlagenforschung und Klinik der visuellen Sensoriknonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published10Das Raster der neuronalen Elemente in der Sehrinde und seine neuro-physiologischen Konsequenzen150171542369592MFahleVBraitenbergSpringerBerlin, Germany1984-00-00186200Cerebellar Functionsnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published14Some quantitative aspects of cerebellar anatomy as a guide to speculation on cerebellar functions150171542318077ASchüzAnaheim, CA, USA1984-10-0057914th Annual Meeting of the Society for Neuroscience (Neuroscience 1984)nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published-579Comparison between the developmental calendars of the cerebral and cerebellar cortices in a precocial and an altricial rodent150171542369617VBraitenbergLeningrad, Soviet Union1984-01-00171Symposium Association Systems of the BrainPeculiarly, at the same time as modern psychologists are becoming more and more
cognitive, modern views of the cortex seem to turn away from the global aspects of
cortical function in favour of a description in terms of columns and modules, functional
units much finer even than the areas and subareas of the old architectonic school.
We are faced with the question of what holds the modules together when a global
thought is organized in the brain, or even a multisensory perception. Fortunately,
we are not compelled to take the extreme view that would relegate the integrative
action to extracortical structures, with the cortex itself as a passive, compartmentalized
reference file. There are enough synapses in the cortex (1011 in the mouse, 1014 in
man) which can hardly serve any other purpose that that of dynamic interaction of
elementary or complex percepts. How many of these synapses are between neurons
within a module, how many of them link neighbouring modules and how many link
modules far apart? These are questions to which our statistical considerations of
cortical structure are addressed. The synapses between cortical neurons vastly outnumber
the synapses between afferent fibers and cortical neurons. Most of these
synapses are between pyramidal cells and are probably excitatory. Synapses between
neighbours are probably not more numerous than those between distant elements.
The influence of a single pyramidal cell onto another is probably very slight, so that
strong effects must be mediated by groups of active neurons. All of this points to the
cortex as the place where cell assemblies in the sense of Hebb are organized.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published-171The Associative Network in the Mouse Cortex150171542369663VBraitenberg1983-00-003521541Giornale Italiano di Psicologianonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published20Alla ricerca di morfemi all‘interno del cervello150171542369633VBraitenberg1983-00-002237241Journal of Theoretical Neurobiologynonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published4The cerebellum revisited150171542317932VBraitenbergASchüzAcademic PressLondon, UK1983-00-002137Neurobiology of the Hippocampusnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/fileadmin/user_upload/files/publications/Hippocampus_Braitenberg_Schuez.pdfpublished16Some anatomical comments on the Hippocampus150171542369677VBraitenbergBoston, MA, USA1983-11-0047413th Annual Meeting of the Society for Neuroscience (Neuroscience 1983)nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published-474Explanation of orientation columns in terms of a homogeneous network of neurons in the visual cortex150171542369647MFahleVBraitenbergHamburg, West Germany1983-09-00S108Seventh European Neuroscience Congressnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published0Curvature detection in the central and peripheral visual field of human subjects150171542318087ASchüzHamburg, West Germany1983-09-00S336Seventh European Neuroscience Congressnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published0Postnatal changes in the dimensions of dendritic spines in the cortex of the guinea-pig150171542369683VBraitenberg1982-00-003131143120Das Fenster: Tiroler Kulturzeitschriftnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published6Das Gehirn: die graue Eminenz des Verhaltens150171542369697VBraitenbergSalerno, Italy1982-04-00127132Workshop on Biomathematics: Current Status and Future Perspectivesnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published5Outline of a theory of the cerebral cortex150171542318107ASchüzAMünsterMDortenmannMinneapolis, MN, USA1982-11-0012th Annual Meeting of the Society for Neuroscience (Neuroscience 1982)nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published0Counts of synapses on identified neurons in the mouse cortex150171542318097VBraitenbergASchüzMinneapolis, MN, USA1982-11-0012th Annual Meeting of the Society for Neuroscience (Neuroscience 1982)nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published0What kind of cortex is the Hippocampus?150171542317953ASchüz1981-00-0022113127Journal für Hirnforschungnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published14Pränatale Reifung und postnatale Veränderung im Cortex des Meerschweichens: Mikroskopische Auswertung eines natürlichen Deprivationsexperimentes. II. Postnatale Veränderungen150171542317943ASchüz1981-00-002293111Journal für Hirnforschungnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published18Pränatale Reifung und postnatale Veränderung im Cortex des Meerschweinchens: Mikroskopische Auswertung eines natürlichen Deprivationsexperimentes. I. Pränatale Reifung150171542369707VBraitenbergBudapest, Hungary1981-00-0028728930th International Congress of Physiological Sciencesnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published2A selection of facts and conjectures about the cerebral cortex inspired by the theory of cell assemblies150171542369717VBraitenbergBudapest, Hungary1981-00-0041141928th International Congress of Physiological Sciencesnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published8Anatomical basis for divergence, convergence and integration in the cerebral cortex150171542317737ASchüzBudapest, Hungary1981-00-0027928528th International Congress of Physiological Sciences 1980nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published6Prenatal formation of synapses and dendritic spines in Guinea-pig cortex and their postnatal changes150171542368731VBraitenbergPaolo BoringhieriTorino, Italy1980-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published167I tessuti intelligenti150171542369722VBraitenbergFranco AngeliMilano, Italy1980-00-0096108L‘accostamento interdisciplinare allo studio del linguaggiononotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published12Alcune considerazioni sui meccanismi cerebrali del linguaggio150171542339073VBraitenbergCBraitenberg1979-08-00333179186Biological CyberneticsThe optimal direction of lines in the visual field to which neurons in the visual cortex respond changes in a regular way when the recording electrode progresses tangentially through the cortex (Hubel and Wiesel, 1962). It is possible to reconstruct the field of orientations from long, sometimes multiple parallel penetrations (Hubel and Wiesel, 1974; Albus, 1975) by assuming that the orientations are arranged radially around centers. A method is developed which makes it possible to define uniquely the position of the centers in the vicinity of the electrode track. They turn out to be spaced at distances of about 0.5 mm and may be tentatively identified with the positions of the giant cells of Meynert.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de//fileadmin/user_upload/files/publications/Geometry%20of%20Orientation%20Columns%20in%20the%20Visual%20Cortex_3907[0].pdfpublished7Geometry of orientation columns in the visual cortex150171542369737VBraitenbergRegensburg, Germany1979-06-0020120672. Jahresversammlung der Deutschen Zoologischen Gesellschaftnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published5Skizze einer Theorie der Grosshirnrinde150171542369787VBraitenbergTübingen, Germany1978-00-00171188Symposium Theoretical Approaches to Complex Systems 1977nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/fileadmin/user_upload/files/publications/Theoretical-Approaches-to-Complex-Systems-1977-Braitenberg-171.pdfpublished17Cell assemblies in the cerebral cortex150171542369792VBraitenbergRaven PressNew York, NY, USA1978-00-00443465Architectonics of the cerebral cortexnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published22Cortical architectonics: General and areal150171542317962ASchüzRaven PressNew York, NY, USA1978-00-00129135Architectonics of the cerebral cortexnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published6Some facts and hypotheses concerning dendritic spines and learning150171542369742GPalmVBraitenbergWileyNew York, NY, USA1978-00-00369374Progress in cybernetics and systems research: General systems methodology, fuzzy mathematics and fuzzy systems, biocybernetics and theoretical neurobiologynonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published5Tentative contributions of neuroanatomy to nerve net theories150171542318117VBraitenbergGPalmASchüzFirenze, Italy1978-09-00S119S120Second European Neuroscience Meetingnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published0Functional aspects of the cortical anatomy150171542318127ASchüzGPalmVBraitenbergFirenze, Italy1978-09-00S43Second European Neuroscience Meetingnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published0Quantitative aspects of cortical anatomy150171542324931VBraitenbergSpringerNew York, NY, USA1977-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published127On the Texture of Brains: An introduction to neuroanatomy for the cybernetically minded150171542368923VBraitenberg1977-09-00299186196Annals of the New York Academy of Sciencesnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published10The concept of symmetry in neuroanatomy150171542368933WBurkhardtVBraitenberg1976-10-003173287308Cell and Tissue ResearchIn the lamina ganglionaris, the first optic ganglion of the fly, the inventory of cell types as well as the patterns of their connections are well known from light microscopic investigations. Even the synaptic contacts are known with relative completeness. However, the structural details visible on electron micrographs are very difficult to interpret in functional terms. This paper concentrates on two aspects: 1) the synaptic complex between a retinula cell axon and four postsynaptic elements, arranged in a constant elongated array (it is suggested that all synapses in which the retinula cell is presynaptic are of this kind), and 2) the ldquognarlrdquo complex in which a presynaptic specialization in one neuron is separated from another neuron by a complicated glial invagination. The participation of glia at postsynaptic sites seems to be quite common in this ganglion. Occasionally it seems that a glia cell is the only postsynaptic partner facing a presynaptic specialization within a neuron.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published21Some peculiar synaptic complexes in the first visual ganglion of the fly, Musca domestica150171542317973ASchüz1976-05-005-631319323Zeitschrift für Naturforschung CNeighbouring pyramidal cells in the mouse cortex sometimes have different densities of dentritic spines. This was shown by a quantitative analysis of 10 neurons. For this, a method was worked out which corrects for the spines hidden behind (and in front of) the dendrite. The main result is that there is a positive correlation between the spine densities on different parts of the dendritic tree of one neuron. The possible functional meaning of these findings is briefly discussed.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published4Pyramidal cells with different densities of dendritic spines in the cortex of the mouse150171542368947VBraitenbergAmsterdam, Netherlands1976-00-001972059th International Summer School of Brain Research 1975nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published8Real Neural Networks150171542369802VBraitenbergSpringerBerlin, Germany1976-00-00238244Neural principles in visionnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published6Beyond the wiring diagram of the lamina ganglionaris in the fly150171542368953VBraitenberg1975-12-0061351351Neuroscience Lettersnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published0Letter to the editor150171542369817VBraitenbergsan Francisco, CA, USA1975-09-001141161975 International Conference on Cybernetics and Societynonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published2The cerebral cortex from a neuroanatomical vantage point150171542368963VBraitenberg1974-08-00246421427Journal of Theoretical Biologynonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published6Thoughts on the cerebral cortex150171542369833VBraitenbergPDebbage1974-03-001902531Journal of Comparative PhysiologyIn the first visual ganglion of the fly (Musca domestica) there are many similar visual channels (ldquocartridgesrdquo), connected to each other by various systems of fibers, the most regular of which consists of the collateral branches of the L4 neuron, which is contained in each cartridge.
The three collaterals of L4 run to three different cartridges, one of which is the parent cartridge of the neuron, the other two being neighbours of that cartridge in two directions of an hexagonal array (Figs. 1a, 3).
Within each cartridge there are thus the endings of three collaterals (from three different L4 neurons). These make close physical contact, and serial sectioning shows that each collateral is presynaptic to the other two (Fig. 2). It follows that there are reciprocal synapses between any pair of these collaterals.
The network of relationships thus set up is the simplest scheme of coupling in a hexagonal array (Fig. 1a, b, c).nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published6A regular net of reciprocal synapses in the visual system of the fly, Musca domestica150171542369827VBraitenbergTrieste, Italy1974-08-00290298Physics and mathematics of the nervous system : proceedings of a Summer School, held at Trieste, August 21-31, 1973nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published8On the representation of objects and their relations in the brain150171542324921VBraitenbergSpringerBerlin, Germany1973-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published137Gehirngespinste: Neuroanatomie für kybernetisch Interessierte150171542368973VBraitenberg1973-07-001656International Journal of Neurosciencenonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published1Remarks on the Texture of Brains150171542369852VBraitenbergVan Nostrand ReinholdNew York, NY, USA1973-00-00229232The encyclopedia of microscopy and microtechniquenonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published3Golgi methods150171542369862VBraitenbergNJStrausfeldSpringerBerlin, Germany1973-00-00631659Central processing of visual information, Part A: Integrative functions and comparative datanonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published28Principles of the mosaic organization in the visual system‘s neuropil of Musca domestica150171542368983VBraitenbergHHauser-Holschuh1972-12-00216184209Experimental Brain ResearchA method was developed for the numbering of the 3,000 subunits of the lamina ganglionaris on eleotronmicroscopical preparations. Thus measurements of fiber size could be related to the position of the elements on a map of the ganglion. A striking gradient of the thickness of one of the lamina neurons, L3, was found to be correlated with the size of the corresponding lenses of the compound eye. The size of two more second order neurons, L1 and L2 also varies depending on their position in the ganglion, but according to a pattern different from that of the variation of L3. These findings are discussed in connexion with current models of movement perception in the fly.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published25Patterns of projection in the visual system of the fly II: Quantitative aspects of second order neurons in relation to models of movement perception150171542369877VBraitenbergWien, Austria1972-09-0018Synchronization of EEG activity in epilepsies : a symposium organized by the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria September 12-13, 1971Synchronization of EEG activity in epilepsies : a symposium organized by the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Viennonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published7Comparison of different cortices as a basis for speculations on their function150171542369887VBraitenbergZürich, Switzerland1972-03-00315Information processing in the visual systems of arthropods : symposium held at the Department of Zoology, University of Zurich, March 6-9, 1972nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published12Periodic structures and structural gradients in the visual ganglia of the fly150171542369847VBraitenbergLeipzig, German Democratic Republic1972-00-009397III. International Symposium on Biocyberneticsnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published4In serach of the neurological wiring responsible for optomotor reactions in insects150171542370037VBraitenbergCascania Terme, Italy1971-10-004253Congresso di Ciberneticanonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published11The structure of the visual ganglia in relation to studies on movement perception in the fly150171542370057VBraitenbergLeipzig, GDR1971-09-00215220Internationales Symposium Biokybernetiknonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published5What sort of computer do we expect to find associated with the compound eye of flying insects?150171542368993VBraitenberg1970-12-0067235242KybernetikThe neural elements in the visual ganglia of insects show an uncommonly high degree of order. The mapping of the array of sensory elements in the periphery (of sampling points in the visual space) onto four successive levels of the ganglionic chain can be quite precisely described, each neuron in the ganglia being related to a point, or a set of points, in the visual field. Also some of the fibers which connect neurons related to different visual-space-points are very precisely oriented. One of these sets of fibers oriented obliquely appear to match the interactions postulated on the basis of one of Götz‘s (1968) models of movement perception in flies. Some embryological questions are also raised by the high degree of order and by the curious mirror symmetry with respect to the mid-sagittal plane on one hand and to the equatorial plane on the other, which pervades the whole system.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published7Ordnung und Orientierung der Elemente im Sehsystem der Fliege150171542369893NJStrausfeldVBraitenberg1970-06-0027095104Zeitschrift für Vergleichende PhysiologieIn addition to the three first order interneurons (L1, L2, L3) which are present in each optic cartridge of the lamina, a fourth type of interneuron (L4) has been discovered whose collaterals to other cartridges compose an orderly network arrangement of fibres under the lamina‘s inner face.Zusätzlich zu den drei Interneuronen erster Ordnung (L1, L2, L3), die in jeder ldquorCartridgeldquo der Lamina vorkommen, wurde ein vierter Interneuronentyp (L4) gefunden, dessen zu anderen Cartridges gerichtete Kollateralen ein regelmäßig angeordnetes Fasernetz an der Innenseite der Lamina bilden.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published9The compound eye of the fly (Musca domestica): connections between the cartridges of the lamina ganglionaris150171542369003VBraitenbergMKemali1970-02-002138137146Journal of Comparative NeurologyFifty series of sections through the frog‘s brain, four series of the newt‘s brain and two series of the eel‘s brain were searched for asymmetries in the epithalamic region. Marked differences between the right and left habenular nuclei were found in all cases, in the sense that the left one had a more lobate structure than its right counterpart.nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published9Exceptions to bilateral symmetry in the epithalamus of lower vertebrates150171542369903VBraitenberg1970-00-0035-364348Attemptononotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published5Hirnforschung zwischen Lokalisationslehre und Systemanalyse150171542334302VBraitenbergKKirschfeldUmschau VerlagFrankfurt a. M., Germany1970-00-00105113Kybernetik: Brücke zwischen den Wissenschaftennonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published8Datenübertragung im Klomplexauge der Fliege1501715423150171542324951MKemaliVBraitenbergSpringerBerlin, Germany1969-00-00nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published74Atlas of the frog‘s brain150171542369947VBraitenbergVarenna, Italy1969-00-00328340International School of Physics "Enrico Fermi": Course XLIII, 1968nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published12The Anatomical Substratum of Visual Perception in Flies: A Sketch of the Visual Ganglia150171542370062VBraitenbergLittle, Brown & Co.Boston, MA, USA1969-00-00768771Basic Mechanisms of the epilepsiesnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published3Models of brain function: Discussion150171542317283WReichardtVBraitenbergGWeidel1968-11-0045148169Kybernetiknonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published21Auslösung von Elementarprozessen durch einzelne Lichtquanten im Fliegenauge: Verhaltensexperimente an der Stubenfliege Musca150171542370073VBraitenberg1968-00-0011036511Atti della Accademia Nazionale dei Linceinonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published0Contributi tecnici e concettuali dell‘elettronica allo studio dei cervelli viventi150171542334013VBraitenbergKKirschfeld1968-00-0031968185206Mitteilungen der Max-Planck-Gesellschaftnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published21Optische und neurale Projektion der Umwelt auf die Ganglien im Komplexauge der Fliege1501715423150171542370087VBraitenbergRavello, Italy1968-00-003442Neural networks: Proceedings of the School on Neural Networks, June 1967 in Ravellononotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published8On chiasms150171542369937VBraitenbergDayton, OH, USA1968-00-0011Cybernetic problems in bionics: Bionics Symposium 1966nonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published0On the neural optics behind the eye of the fly150171542369042VBraitenbergElsevierAmsterdam, Netherlands1967-00-00334346The Cerebellumnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published12Is the Cerebellar Cortex a Biological Clock in the Millisecond Range?150171542369112VBraitenbergElsevierAmsterdam, Netherlands1965-00-00210222Cybernetics of the Nervous Systemnonotspecifiedhttp://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/published12Taxis, Kinesis and Decussation1501715423